THE DIFFICULTIES AND DANGERS OF MINE-RESCUE WORK ON THE WESTERN FRONT; AND MINING OPERATIONS CARRIED OUT BY MEN WEARING RESCUE-APPARATUS.
Lieut.-Colonel D. Dale Logan, d.s.o., m.d., d.p.h.
I.-The Difficulties And Dangers Of Mine-resuce Work On The Western Front
Introduction
As doubtless some of the members are aware, it was largely due to the driving power of Sir John Norton Griffiths that Tunnelling Companies were so quickly formed. When I was attached to the staff of the Engineer-in-Chief in September, 1915, 1 had every chance of appreciating his work, his impatience with everything savouring of red tape, and his forceful methods of getting things done. I was also brought into close association with another member of the staff, Brigadier-General R. N. Harvey, to whom more than anyone else belongs the credit and honour of making the tunnelling service such a splendid self-contained one, and of bringing it to, so high a pitch of efficiency. I believe that it was regarded by the general staff as a model of efficiency. When the special mining department was formed in January, 1916, General Harvey was appointed Inspector of Mines. His appointment turned out a particularly happy one. He had already done brilliant work as staff officer to the Engineer-in-Chief, and was recognized as an unusually good organizer, a restless worker, with a. most orderly brain. He never spared himself, and he took very good care that no one under him spared himself. In my opinion certain things helped General Harvey. He had a, very good idea of values, an attribute which was very valuable in the early days of mining. He also realized and thoroughly appreciated the ability and experience of the tunnelling officers, the many mining experts drawn from every mining district in the world, and the character and capacity of those splendid fellows, the tunnellers. The Battle of Messines is considered one of the most complete and brilliant victories ever gained by the British-a model of staff work. According to Sir Douglas Haig, the mining operations, which were the most gigantic ever attempted in the history of warfare, contributed in no small degree to the victory. Would it not be fitting, then, that General Harvey's name be associated with that of General Plumer in connexion with this glorious victory?
I was on the staff of the Inspector of Mines till January, 1919, so I may claim to know something of the tunnellers and their work. I formed the highest opinion of the officers; there were no more efficient or gallant officers in the Army. About 80 per cent, of them had been mining abroad, and had come from all parts of the world. They were inured to danger, had any amount of pluck and resource, and had been, used to thinking and acting for themselves and to handling men. The result was that their men trusted them.
As for the men, one cannot speak too highly of their work. The miner makes a splendid soldier, as Sir Douglas Haig has testified on several occasions. In order to appreciate the tunnellers' work, one must remember that of the specially enlisted miners many were over forty years of age, and a considerable number Over fifty, and that they suffered from all kinds of minor disabilities. The Bosches have a, name for painstaking industry, but in mining our fellows left them well behind and were easily "top dogs." I know of no units in the Army which had harder and more continuous work than the tunnellers. Many of the companies were continuously in the front line for more than two years without rest. Work was always carried out under pressure and against time. It was this factor indeed which made mining such trying and arduous work. At first, owing to their want of military training and their unsoldierly bearing, the tunnellers were regarded with a certain amount of contempt--aye, even derision-but it was not long before they were looked upon as the guides and friends of the infantry, knowing as they did every, inch of the trenches.
The character of the work underground entails considerable nervous strain both for officers and men. Listening under certain conditions is particularly nerve-wearing work, and at the same time most hazardous. From the time when the listener commences work his nervous system is. in a state of tension, and it is well known that tension is more exhausting than work. To this must be added the deadly monotony and loneliness of the work, and the necessity for absolute silence. In many sectors of the line, especially those situated in the clay, silent working was essential. The efficient way in which this was carried out was shown by the complete nature of the surprise at Messines. It is difficult to realize what silent working means, and to estimate the strain on the men, more especially as they were carrying out hard work all the time. The slightest noise might result in such serious consequences, and have such far-reaching effects, that every man had to concentrate his attention on working, in perfect silence; and, as you all know, concentration causes fatigue to be felt more quickly.
Let me now give a few incidents to show the character of
the men who carried out the work of tunnelling. In the winter .of 1915, I had to parade some of the older men, who, after being in the trenches for six months, had completely broken .down in health. I remember one old man whom I found going about with the aid of sticks; he was crippled with rheumatism. I asked him his age, adding, " Your proper age, not your recruiting age." The old man replied, " sixty-eight." That man bad 'I stuck it " for months at Hill 60, which I am sure is still fresh in your memories, and was the scene of some of the hardest underground fighting during the war. In another case, just before the battle of Langemarck, a section commander of one of the tunnelling companies sent back to camp a man of fifty eight years of age, who, he thought, was not fit to carry on, under the fierce shell-fire which was likely to be experienced, with a. note, to the medical officer asking him to place the man on light duty. The medical officer carried out the request, but that night the man made his way up, to the trenches with his section, and next day won the Military Medal. At Givenchy the miners helped to save a critical situation; indeed, if it had not been for the work of the 251st Tunnelling Company it is almost certain that Bethune, with its valuable coalfields, would have fallen. In this sector a remarkable coincidence occurred. One of the old miners was gassed, fell down the shaft, and was killed. At that moment his grandson, who was in an infantry battalion, was on sentry near the shaft-head about a hundred yards along the, trench.
In the Ypres salient, the enemy blew a mine which destroyed several hundred yards of a British gallery that was well- under the enemy line. About twelve men were in the mine at the time. The rescue-party, after working for a day, found that the armoured hose for carrying air to the working-face, and the electric wires for lighting, had been injured. After eight days' hard work the gallery was cleared and eleven bodies were found in the dip; it was presumed that the twelfth had been buried. As a matter of fact, this man had retired to the working-face where he lay down; on the eighth day when lie found the air had greatly improved, he made his way out. The information given by this man proved to be most interesting. After the explosion he tried to 4ssuade his mates from attempting to dig their way through, as by doing so they would quickly consume the little oxygen available in the gallery, and it was certain that a rescue-party was already hard at work. He urged the men to distribute themselves along the gallery to the working face and to lie down, as by so doing they would consume less oxygen. They refused to listen to him, so he made his way to the working face, prepared a bed of sand-bags, and lay down. After the third day, when probably the eleven men had died, he
Found that the air had improved. He had no food, but he had a little water in his, water-bottle, with which he rinsed out his mouth, but which he was careful always to return to the battle. It required great strength of character on the part of this man to separate himself from his mates in such a time of danger, to go far away from them and lie down; and it also, required great confidence in his own judgment regarding the condition of the atmosphere and the factors which affected it. The man was found to be none the worse for his trying experience, which, I should add, was the second of its kind he had gone through. Such incidents show the character of the-glen who helped to win such fame for the Tunnelling Companies.
If you were to ask anyone about gas-poisoning, he would tell you when gas was first used, all about drift gas, gas-shells, and gas-bombs, and he would probably dilate on the wicked ness of the Germans in introducing such a hideous weapon of warfare. How many people realize, however, that in the use of what might be termed the legitimate weapons of modern warfare in which explosives are used many casualties from gas-poisoning occurred every day?
During the war thousands of casualties from carbon monoxide poisoning resulted from shells, trench-mortars, bombs, and aerial torpedoes bursting in deep trenches, dugouts, cellars, concrete structures, and enclosed places, as well as ships; from mobile charges used to destroy dugout systems; from bombs bursting in houses and flooding basements with gas, and from many other causes. To-day we are solely concerned with gas poisoning in mines.
I find that it is very difficult to make people appreciate the very extensive scale on which mining operations were carried out on the. western front. Mining started in the beginning of 1915, -and by the autumn had made huge strides. With the great increase in size of explosive charges used in craters and in camouflets, following upon the increased depth of mines, the more extensive mine systems, and the consequent increased personnel employed, the casualties from gas-poisoning assumed serious proportions. Before a system of rescue-work and of protection against gas in mining could be organized, one Tunnelling Company in five weeks had sixteen killed, forty eight sent to hospital, and eighty-six minor cases treated at the shaft-head and returned to the company billets. Another company in a month had twelve killed by gas, twenty-eight sent to hospital, and sixty minor cases retained with the unit. As many of these men were skilled miners, whose places it was almost impossible to fill at the time, the wastage was affecting in a, very marked way the efficiency of companies.
From 1915 to June, 1917, many thousands of men were daily
employed underground. It may convey some idea of the intensity of mine warfare waged and the great risk of gas poisoning and other casualties occurring when it is stated that in 1916 the enemy fired 700 mines and camouflets and the British nearly 750. At the Battle of Messines, in which mining contributed so much to the success of operations, nineteen huge mines were exploded, some of which were charged with over 90,000 pounds of ammonal. To give some idea of the work involved, it should be stated that about 25,000 feet of gallery were driven, and the total charge of explosives in these mines was over 1,000,000 pounds. That conveys nothing regarding the many difficulties which were overcome on account of the treacherous nature of the ground in many places-for example, blue -clay below running sand above which called for the greatest skill, courage, ingenuity, and perseverance to overcome. It is not generally understood that several of the mines had been laid for twelve months, and many for nine months, and that they were still effective when required, which shows how carefully the charges had been laid. These were the result of many months' constant, strenuous, silent watching and working of a particularly nerve-wracking character; and, in order to preserve the mines until the great moment arrived, much underground warfare and crater fighting was waged and many mines and camouflets were blown.
By far the greatest number of gas-poisoning cases in mining were caused by carbon monoxide. As this gas is not naturally present in the soil, it could result only from the explosives used. Explosives used in military mining should fulfil the following conditions:-(1) reliability in action, (2) safety in handling, etc., and (3) powerful lifting and shattering effects. The production of much carbon monoxide by an explosive was a serious drawback to its use in certain circumstances, especially in blowing camouflets. In the intensive crater warfare which was waged continuously for so many months, it was frequently necessary for the infantry to occupy the craters very quickly. after they were formed, and in many cases it was necessary for work to be resumed in the blown galleries as early as possible, as in the case of the defensive operations which accompanied offensive mining.
For several centuries gunpowder was the only explosive used in military mining. In this war it was very little employed in mining operations. In the early days of mining in 1915 guncotton was used, but quickly abandoned, as it gave most unsatisfactory results underground. It produces more carbon monoxide than any other explosive-over 40 per cent. if there is complete detonation; and as much as 54 per cent. if detonation has been incomplete. Experience showed that it was very difficult to clear the mine of gas after this explosive had been used, as the
disturbed ground and that in the vicinity became quite saturated with gas, and there was frequently trouble when the tamping was being removed owing to gas welling out.
Nearly every explosive used in mining by the Allies and by the enemy belonged to the ammonium-nitrate group. Generally speaking, they contain an excess of oxygen and theoretically give rise to little or no carbon monoxide. But they appear to vary considerably in this respect, and in the conditions under which they were generally employed produced considerable quantities of this gas. All the explosives belonging to this group, are hygroscopic, and, in the presence of moisture, large quantities of carbon monoxide are generated. Ammonal was the explosive which was most used by the British during the most active mining period. Afterwards amatol, blastine, and sabulite were employed.
Under certain conditions large quantities of carbon monoxide may be produced from all explosives. The amount will depend not only upon the type of explosive used, but upon the quality. Deterioration of the charge or of the detonators, from whatever cause, may lead to incomplete or imperfect+ detonation of the charge, with the consequent production of _large quantities of carbon monoxide. Bad quality of explosive or of detonators, or insufficient or weak detonators, may also cause this. Sore of these conditions may be produced when a charge has been poorly laid and tamped for some time in damp workings.
How Gas-poisoning was Caused (Fig. 1, Plate VII.).-When a mine was exploded, the galleries and shafts of the mine were filled with gas. There was much less trouble. from gas after the. enemy had fired a mine (crater formed) than after a camouflet, where the surface of the ground is not broken. It was found that when the galleries were driven through Ypresian clay, as in mining in Flanders, the mines quickly cleared of gas and the ground did not become impregnated with carbon monoxide to any degree as happened when the galleries were
driven through chalk or other pervious strata. n certain cases where sufficient time had been allowed for the fumes to be dissipated and the air of the gallery proved to be free by the use of canaries, it was found that when the men commenced to remove the tamping they were frequently affected by the carbon monoxide which was liberated.
Many cases of gas-poisoning were' caused, especially in the chalk areas, when the galleries were driven through ground disturbed by previous blows, or in its vicinity. In certain parts of the disturbed area large collections of gas might be tapped-these were known as " pockets of gas." The gas sometimes came through in distinct puffs, 'with a hissing or whistling sound, showing that it was escaping under pressure.
Fumes from explosives frequently lose their distinctive odour after percolating through the soil, and are consequently much more insidious. It has sometimes happened after a small hostile camouflet. that the miners in the neighbouring galleries were so little disturbed by the explosion that they went on working. In the course of time gas penetrated to these galleries and poisoned the men there. To prevent such accidents the order " When a blow occurs, even though this appears to be a long way off, all men working below must come up at once " was issued.
Sudden inrushes of gas into galleries which were free of gas were sometimes encountered owing (a) to sudden settling of the ground by whatever cause (rain, another blow, etc.), forcing the contained gas into the gallery; (b) to changes in atmospheric pressure; and (c) to changes in the water-level.
On certain occasions after the explosion of an enemy mine, gas has poured from the shaft and poisoned men who were in the 'trenches in the immediate vicinity. In such cases serious gassing is more likely to occur where the trenches are very narrow, and also where _ the weather conditions (absence of wind, heavy dull atmosphere) are unfavourable for the rapid dispersion of the fumes in the open. The infantry were warned against taking shelter in the mine-shafts, dugouts, chambers, etc., from the shell fire which accompanied an enemy mine explosion, as these places became regular death-traps.
One of the most important features of the stationary trench warfare of 1915, 1916, and part of 1917 was the fighting for craters, which went on continuously. It happened frequently after a mine w.u4 exploded that only a very few minutes elapsed before the crater was occupied by the infantry, bombing posts, etc., were established, and other means taken to consolidate the position. Seeing that charges of many tons of explosive were generally used, one would have thought that there was considerable opportunity of gas-poisoning. But the loose, porous condition of the earth in the crater, the mounds (lips of crater), and ground in the immediate vicinity, allowed gas to escape readily, and as, in ordinary circumstances, this would be quickly dispersed, gas-poisoning cases among the infantry occupying the crater did not often occur. It was only when very large quantities of gas were formed, as with an incompletely-detonated mine, and when atmospheric conditions were favourable, that gas collected and poisoned the men who had rushed the crater. When these conditions prevailed, it was customary to take all the necessary precautions.
At the Battle of Messines, in order to, avoid all danger from gas-poisoning, the. following precautions were taken:-All trenches and shallow dugouts within 300 yards of the mines,
and all mined dugouts and subways within a radius of 400 yards of the mines, were vacated before firing. The assaulting troops were ordered to avoid the bottoms of craters, and any work of consolidation was to be confined to the top, and at least 10 feet from the lip. A number of the infantry, however, who for various reasons, wounds, etc., had been forced to halt in the immediate vicinity of the craters, were more or less seriously affected by the gas. The weather conditions were in favour of slow dispersal of the gas.
In the French Army a number of serious cases of gas poisoning occurred, men, while in the process of consolidating the crater of mines which had just been blown, having been known to fall and die in a few minutes. In some of these cases rescuers, who were not wearing apparatus, were also overcome. According to captured German documents, cases of carbon-monoxide poisoning in mine craters only occurred in very exceptional circumstances, such as when craters were occupied immediately in dull weather, more especially when the mine had detonated imperfectly.
Occasionally the gas exuding from-the broken ground in the crater became ignited, forming walls or pillars of flame from a few feet to 12 feet high, which burned for hours. I think that
this provides an excellent demonstration of the amount of gas formed by the detonation of large mines.
Explosion of Gas in Mines.- Gases from the detonation of a high explosive include carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane, all of which are combustible, and, when present in the proper proportion, explosive. Methane is never formed at the time of explosion, but results from the action of hydrogen on the oxides of carbon as the gas cools down, which it quickly does in the galleries. The greater the amount of hydrogen formed, the greater will be the proportion of methane.
When explosive gases are ignited, they do not explode at the point of ignition, but at a certain distance away. What happens is that the flame passes along at a uniform rate to a certain point, where, if there is sufficient gas to feed it, vibrations are set up, which become more and more rapid until explosion occurs. When the gas is not present in sufficient quantity, or in non-explosive percentage, the flame becomes spent. The result is that evidences of damage done to the gallery are never found at the point of ignition, but some distance away, and the men in the vicinity of where the gas has been fired suffer from burns, and not from injuries caused by the force of the explosion. The damage done to the gallery, which is generally limited to a very small area, will depend upon the force of the explosion, which will be much less where the galleries are large than where they are
narrow, owing to the fact that air is an elastic medium, which deadens the effect of the explosive impulse. One grave danger from explosions of gas is the rapid flooding of the mine system by gas from the camouflet, owing to the combustion and explosion of the gas in the galleries causing a partial vacuum, so that the majority of the casualties from explosions of gas were due to carbon-monoxide poisoning.
Attention was first directed to gas explosions by a serious one which occurred in January, 1916, when a Tunnelling Company suffered considerable casualties, the officer commanding, another officer, and sixteen other ranks being killed. As this conveys a very good lesson of one of the great dangers of military mining, I shall give a short description of what occurred. The danger of carrying a naked light into a mine in which gas in small quantity was known to be present was not appreciated. In such cases it is well to remember that gas may be present in explosive amount, and that the quantity may be suddenly increased owing to various causes-for example, changes of atmospheric pressure, settling of ground saturated with gas, etc.
At 2.15 p.m. the enemy exploded a camouflet. From all accounts the explosion was not intense, and the damage done lo our galleries was small. The probabilities are that the mine had been charged and tamped for some time, that the charge had deteriorated, and that part of it had been incompletely, detonated, with the result that large volumes of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane were formed. At the time of the explosion four officers and a considerable number of men were in the galleries. The exact positions of the officers and most of the men at the time of explosion were known (Fig. 2, Plate VII.). There is an order that as soon as an explosion occurs everyone must leave the mine, and an attempt was made to carry this out. At first gas from the camouflet came along the galleries, but not in sufficient strength to overcome those in the mine, although they began to feel the effects of it. Certainly they were not exposed to gas of sufficient strength to give rise to an explosion, for they would have been quickly overcome by it, and we know, from the movements of an officer that this was not so. Suddenly there was a rush of gas from the camouflet. This passed down a branch gallery to the transversal, when it was ignited by the candles of two men, whose caps were found here; it exploded further along the transversal, killing an officer. In certain proportions of explosive gases the explosive effect at the point of ignition is practically nil, and any one at that place would suffer from burns and not from the shock and injuries from the explosive wave. And this is what was found: the men who ignited the gas, and who were afterwards
rescued, suffered from burns and carbon-monoxide poisoning, while at the point of explosion an officer was killed by the violence of the explosion. As a result of the explosion of the gas in the transversal, and its ignition along the branch gallery, a partial vacuum was caused, which produced another influx of gas into the galleries from the camouflet. This passed along the upcast (the direction of the circulation of air, as frequently happened after, an explosion, having been altered, the downcast becoming the upcast), and led to the death of the men who were working in this part of the mine workings. Two officers were killed, one by the violence of the explosion, the other by burns and carbon-monoxide poisoning, and sixteen men lost their lives in carbon-monoxide poisoning. Splendid work
FIG. 5.-ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION (SCHAEFER'S METHOD.
was done by the rescue-men of the company, who saved a number of lives. The rescue operations on the surface were conducted under heavy shell fire.
Mine-rescue Apparatus.- The Proto apparatus was the one chosen, as I considered it the simplest and most efficient rescue apparatus -on the market. For scouting, and work which did not necessitate more than half-an-hour in the mine, the Salvus apparatus was used. In deciding on an oxygen resuscitating apparatus it was necessary to remember the class of men who were to carry out first aid; therefore it should be of the simplest type and foolproof. Automatic resuscitating apparatus, the best known of which is the Pulmotor, was rejected as being too heavy and complicated for use in the trenches, besides being
dangerous even in the hands of medical men. The Novita apparatus was fixed upon and modified to meet the conditions of military, mining, being coupled up in a box ready for immediate use (Figs. 5 and 6 in the text). The box and handles
FIG.6.- Administration of Oxygen by mine-rescue men
FIG.7. MINE-RESECUE SQUAD CARRYING MINE STRETCHER, NOVITA OXYGEN REVIVING APPARATUS, AND MINER’S ELECTRIC LAMPS: ENTERING MINE AFTER EXPLOSION
were arranged in such a way that it was easily carried down the shaft (Figs. 7 and 8 in the text). In rescue-work after an explosion, oxygen reviving apparatus was frequently carried below for the following reasons:- (l) When there were a number of men gassed and it was difficult to take them to the surface until further help arrived, oxygen could be administered on the spot; and (2) in serious cases it was given to drive as much carbon monoxide from the blood as might permit of the removal of the man with safety.
In the early days of mining life-lines were used for hoisting men up the shaft. The difficulties and dangers of this method of bringing up an unconscious man, the constriction of the chest wall and the serious effect this must have in certain cases,
FIG.8.-MINE-RESCUE SQUAD CARRYING GASSED MAN ON MINE-STRETCHER IN THE TRENCHES.
the danger of the rope slipping, and also the great exertion entailed in hauling a man along the galleries, showed the necessity of obtaining a stretcher which would be useful in the gallery and in bringing men to the surface. In a few weeks a mine-stretcher, designed by Lieut. Penman, R.E., one of the officers in charge of mine-rescue schools, was in use. From the accompanying photographs (Figs. 9, 10, and 11 in the text) it will be seen how useful this stretcher was in dragging a man along the galleries' with the least possible exertion for the rescue-men, the skids on the bottom of- the stretcher facilitating this. The rescue-men were so expert in the use of it that a man could be securely fixed to it in a few seconds and hoisted to the -top.
Mine-rescue Organization.- Before describing rescue-work in the trenches, it is necessary to say a little regarding the rescue organization and training.
FIG. 9.- MINE-STRETCHER, SHOWING SKIDS.
FIG.10.- SHOWING USE OF MINE-STRETCHER IN GALLERIES.
Mine-rescue schools for the training of rescue-men were started in each army. The officers in charge of these had skilled knowledge of rescue-apparatus and rescue-work in coal-mines,
and, in addition, they had the great advantage of having been previously engaged in actual mining in the trenches; they therefore knew and appreciated the actual conditions under which the apparatus was used.
In a course of training in rescue-work everything depends upon the amount of practical work carried out; no amount of theoretical work and lectures can take its place, as only in this way can one become familiar with the apparatus. From the beginning it was insisted that the training in wearing apparatus should be very searching in character, approximating as nearly
FIG.11.- PATIENT ON MINE-STRETCHER AT SHAFT-BOTTOM BEFORE BEING HOISTED.
as possible the work rescue-men are called on to do in the trenches. The training in the schools included working at the face, either in clay or in chalk, driving and timbering galleries, recovery and disposal of the spoil, walking quickly, climbing vertical ladders, walking up inclines, and recovering a good solid substantial dummy from under debris, lacing it on the mine-stretcher, and bringing it to the surface. It was only by strenuous training that the men were given the necessary confidence in the apparatus, which is all important in rescue-work,
and permitted them to face the most trying and difficult conditions. Not only must the men be accustomed to wear the apparatus, but they must have a thorough knowledge of every part of the apparatus and its uses. There can be no doubt that the thorough knowledge of the apparatus which is obtained in this way produces confidence, as the wearer feels that, if anything should go wrong with the apparatus, he has the requisite knowledge to remedy it. I regard this part of the training as of the greatest importance.
In companies efficiency in rescue-work was maintained by weekly practices. The only possible way of getting good results from first aid in the trenches is to have a rigid line of treatment, and that all should have a thorough working knowledge of administration of oxygen and how to perform artificial respiration. Schaefer's method was the, one fixed upon as the simplest, and it was the only one taught. Men practised this every day till they became expert. I have never heard of a case where damage was done to the patient by too vigorous movements, and artificial respiration must have been carried out many hundreds of times in the front line under the exciting and trying conditions met there so often at the time of a blow.
Mine-rescue stations (Figs. 1, 3, and 4, :Plate VII.), in which rescue-apparatus and material were stored, were organized in dugouts in close proximity to all mines. When convenient, one station served a group of mines, but when possible they were never placed more than 250 yards away from any mine shaft. Difficulty in getting along the fire trench, owing to the condition of the trench, was taken into consideration when placing apparatus. In certain cases it was found necessary, owing to the dangerous character of the work and gassy condition of the mine, and the condition of the trenches, to keep apparatus ready for immediate 'use at the shaft-head. When this was done, it was kept in the cupboards specially designed for the purpose. Two trained rescue-men were in constant duty at these stations. These men had a. thorough knowledge of the position of each mine served by their stations, and were familiar with the various workings.
Rescue-work in the Trenches.- In rescue-work in the trenches, the necessity of not wasting time in recovering the dead until all chance of saving others had gone was insisted on; also that the object of rescue-work is not only to save life but to prevent further accidents; consequently obedience to standing orders must always be most carefully observed.
The following incident will serve as a good example of rescue-work and of mine-recovery work, such as removal of obstacles caused by explosion, the clearing of air-pipes and re-installation of ventilation, and the dispersal of gas from the
galleries-a combination of rescue-work and mining operations which was so frequently carried out along the whole front:-
Six men were at work in a mine when the enemy blew a mine. Two men who were working at the face were killed. On hearing the sound of the explosion, the rescue-men from the rescue-station made their way along the trenches to the shaft, under the heavy shelling which at that time generally accompanied mine explosions, entered the mine a few minutes after getting the alarm, and rescued four men, all of whom were unconscious, one being wounded as well by a piece of flying timber. On being brought to the surface on the mine-stretcher, the gassed men were treated by two other rescue-men, artificial respiration and the administration of oxygen being required by two of the men, who were seriously gassed; the other two quickly regained consciousness on exposure to the fresh air.
After waiting for a quarter of an hour, the same Proto men who had rescued these men descended the mine to discover the amount of damage done, and to find whether the mine was clearing of gas. A mouse which they carried with them died after they had penetrated a short way into the galleries. Having cleared obstacles from the galleries, they proceeded to install ventilation, and made it possible to resume work that evening.
The following day gas again came through into the gallery, probably as the result of settling of the ground disturbed by the blow. Three men who were rendered unconscious were rescued and brought to the surface, where oxygen was administered; the men were then wrapped in blankets, given hot-water bottles, and kept in the rescue-station for a few hours before being sent down to the aid post.
The following is an example of how prompt obedience to standing orders, and orderly and efficient supervision of rescue-work by the officer in charge, prevented more casualties and permitted work being carried out smoothly and rapidly:-
Eight men were underground in one of our mine systems at the time of an enemy blow. Of these, two were working at the face near which the blow occurred. Immediately the men made their way out, after extinguishing their lights. One reported to the N.C.O. in charge that the man who was working with him at the face was partly buried by debris, and that in attempting to rescue him he felt himself being overcome by gas, and thought it advisable to come back for help. The N.C.O. ordered all to the surface. The exertion of making his way out rendered the man who had been gassed unconscious. On hearing the blow, the officer in charge immediately ordered the mine-rescue men to stand-to, and they arrived at the shaft-head ready to descend within a couple of minutes after the men emerged from the shaft. They descended the shaft and found the man
half covered with debris and unconscious. He was liberated, dragged to the bottom of the incline, placed on a trolley, and sent to the surface. Notwithstanding everything that was done for him (artificial respiration and administration of oxygen were persevered with for two hours), this man died.
If the men who were down the mine had remained to rescue their comrade, as was done in such cases so frequently in the early days of mining, instead of obeying standing orders and immediately coming to the surface, it is certain that more serious results would have occurred and the rescue-work would have been complicated and delayed.
The wonderful effect that oxygen has, combined with artificial respiration, in reviving men who have been seriously-apparently even hopelessly-affected by carbon-monoxide poisoning, and the necessity of persevering for a considerable time in efforts to resuscitate men, even though to all appearance life is extinct, was demonstrated in the following rescue-work :
After an intense bombardment, the enemy raided our trenches and with a large mobile charge blew the entrance to the shaft leading to a tunnel in which thirty-six infantry were sheltering. Of these twenty-five lost their lives from the effects of the explosion and from carbon-monoxide poisoning before they could be rescued. Australian mine-rescue men, with apparatus from the rescue-stations, were quickly on the scene, and succeeded in rescuing and resuscitating eleven men and recovering the bodies of the others. The rescue-work was most smoothly, rapidly, and efficiently carried out. All the men who were rescued were in an unconscious condition and seriously affected by carbon monoxide poisoning. Two appeared lifeless, and a medical officer who was present thought it hopeless to persevere. The rescue-men, however, have instructions to persevere in all such cases, which they did, and had the satisfaction, after ten hours' work, for a good part of which oxygen was administered, of saving both men. All the men required oxygen, and most of them artificial respiration.
Difficulties of Rescue-work in the Trenches.- It must be remembered that during the intensely active mining period mine explosions were frequently accompanied by fierce bombardment of the trenches, which added to the difficulties of rescue-work. Not only so, but other difficulties, some of which were unavoidable and others the result of trench warfare, best described by giving examples, made rescue operations extremely hazardous.
(1) During an enemy bombardment, a heavy minenwerfer bomb or shell pierced an officers' dugout quarters and exploded, killing three officers. Five other officers were more or less seriously gassed. Proto men from the rescue-station, who had
to pass through heavy shelling, were quickly on the scene, and succeeded in rescuing and resuscitating these officers.
Further investigation showed that the explosion had almost closed the batmen's quarters, communication being possible only through an opening which was just sufficiently large to allow the passage of a Proto man. This part of the system was heavily charged with carbon monoxide. A Proto man immediately entered and inspected the place and found six men, all of whom appeared dead. Part of the roof was destroyed, and the ground overhead, being running sand, made the place very dangerous, particularly in the vicinity of the entrance. When coming out to report, the Proto man got into difficulties, on account of his feet and apparatus becoming entangled in some electric wire, and it was with great difficulty that he was dragged to, safety.
Another Proto man entered to make a further inspection, but, when near the entrance, was buried by a fall of earth. An officer who was directing operations at once freed the head and shoulders of this man and applied the mask of a Novita oxygen reviving apparatus to his face.
"Corporal Saxton was breathing for a period of nearly two hours in this position, the mask being constantly kept applied, the cylinders of oxygen being quickly changed when fresh ones were required. Time after time we got the earth off his head and shoulders, but another fall would bury him again. On some occasions he was completely buries for a period of over a minute, but breathing was resumed with the administration of oxygen. There was only room for one Proto man to work at a time, and they were constantly relieved" (Official report).
A heavy fall at last occurred which completely buried Corporal Saxton and partly buried the Proto man, who was dragged out. When Corporal Saxton's body was recovered, it was found that his feet had become entangled in electric wire, and that wire had caught round his waist.
(2) After an enemy blow, two men who were in the mine at the time were caught by the broken timber, and they could be heard talking by the rescuers, from whom they were separated by about 30 feet of wrecked timber. After working for eight hours, the rescue-party were able to extricate both men alive.
In a neighbouring gallery in the same mine a listener was cut off. Rescue presented the greatest difficulties, as the ground was running badly, threatening to cut off the rescue-party. When the man was reached, he was found to be badly squeezed, and it was necessary to work round both sides of him before he was finally rescued, after being entombed for nearly ten hours.
(3) In another case, two men were cut off by a blow and separated by 70 feet of wrecked gallery from the rescue-party. Fortunately, the two armoured air-hoses were not quite flattened, and this not only prevented the men from being asphyxiated, but permitted communication being kept up with them. The
rescuers worked in double parties, one pushing' ahead as fast as possible, and the other following up their work with temporary sets and struts to make the gallery safe. Work was still in progress twelve hours later when the enemy blew a camouflet against another part of the mite. The workings had to be cleared to test for gas, which, however, was found to be absent. Work was resumed after being suspended for an hour, and five hours afterwards the men were released.
The difficulties encountered in the trenches were sometimes so formidable as to embarrass and delay rescue operations very seriously. The following is an example:
(4) A few days after the French part of the line at Arras was taken over by the British, the enemy sprang a mine. In this part of the line, shelling had been so continuous, and the damage to the trenches so serious, that it was only held in sufficient strength to protect the mine system.
The trenches were very deep and narrow, overlooked by the enemy, and in bad repair. On the morning of the blow, it was so badly damaged by heavy shells as to be almost impassable; 12 feet to the left of the shaft the parapet had been completely destroyed the night before.
The very small dimensions of the old French incline rendered all work with Proto apparatus extremely difficult, the great exertion entailed exhausted the men very quickly. The galleries were very low and narrow (3 feet by 3 feet), and the head-room was further diminished by a 6-inch air-pipe that was attached to the roof. As the cylinders of a Proto apparatus protrude 3 inches from the wearer's back, the difficulty of passing down this gallery will be understood.
Immediately following the explosion of the mine there was a very violent inrush of gas, which not only flooded the mine, but passed up the shaft and flowed along the trenches, where it rendered unconscious a number of infantrymen, and a mine-rescue man who was coming along the trench from the mine-rescue-station, was also overcome before lie could apply the mouthpiece and nose-clips of the apparatus he was wearing: the custom being to apply these when the men reached the shaft. The experience of gas flowing along' 1-he trenches was an unusual one, and is explained by the narrow deep character of the trench, and by the atmospheric condition, which did not favour rapid dispersal of the gas.
As the trench was so contested, it was necessary to clear it before rescue operations in the mine could proceed; the men who had been overcome were treated with oxygen and removed.
In the circumstances, it is not to be wondered at that rescue operations in the mine were considerably delayed. Fortunately, trench conditions such as were encountered on this occasion were
seldom seen, the galleries of our mines and all the approaches being very much larger.
Rescue-work at Fires in Mines and Dugouts.- There is no more dangerous and terrifying accident than a fire underground. It is not difficult to realize that in such confined places, where the galleries are comparatively narrow, the slightest confusion may lead to the most serious consequences. Owing to the way in which mines and dugouts are ventilated, with upcast and downcast shafts or inclines, the fumes are quickly carried through the workings, and gas-poisoning may quickly occur at points at a considerable distance from the fire. In the event of a fire breaking out in a duo-out, men are very apt to get confused and their sense of location blurred in the presence of dense smoke, and instead of making for safety may approach nearer the danger zone.
The mine rescue-men were frequently called .upon to deal, with fires in dugouts, and their work proved of the greatest value, saving a considerable number of lives and much valuable material. They were ready at all times and never failed to answer calls for help from the infantry, and one can hardly picture more trying or hazardous work than that of extinguishing a fire in a dugout. The tunnellers were soon recognized as experts in this work, and in the great fires at Arras and Bethune, which threatened to destroy these towns, it was the tunnellers who were called upon to deal with the situation, and this they successfully did.
In the rescue-stations asbestos hoods and coverings for the Proto apparatus, so as to give protection against heat, were stored.
Fires in mines were rarely encountered. A most unusual one occurred after an enemy blow as the result of three heavy explosions of gas, the gas being ignited by naked lights.
The following order, pointing out the rapidity with which fires spread in dugouts, with consequent loss of life and valuable property, and the precautions to be observed, was circulated,, and from time to time brought to the notice of all ranks : -
" (1) Underground cookhouses will be provided with a door covered with tin, and a number of filled sandbags will be kept in a suitable position, so that, when a fire breaks out, the doors can be shut and a barricade of sandbags rapidly constructed to isolate the fire. Buckets of sand will be kept near each cookhouse to extinguish small fires.
" (2) When a, fire breaks out underground, the officer, N.C.O., or man responsible for giving warning will clear everyone at once out of the whole system, sending the men out in one direction, if possible away from the fire. As the fumes are poisonous and far-reaching in their effects, the entrances and trenches in the vicinity must also be kept clear of men:
" (4) In extensive dugout systems, isolation doors, with handy stores of sandbags on each side of them, will be constructed at suitable points.
" (5) If a mine-rescue station is situated in the vicinity, a notice should be posted in all dugout systems showing its position. The men on duty at the station are available to render assistance in rescuing men and extinguishing the fire.
" (6) Security is best assured by holding frequent fire drills."
* This was necessary on account of the fact that petrol tins were so largely used for carrying up water to the trenches.
II.-MINING OPERATIONS CARRIED OUT BY MEN WEARING PROTO APPARATUS.
When rescue-men became available, they were frequently used to lay armoured hose, in order to clear the mine of gas and restore ventilation immediately after an enemy blow. In this way, valuable time was gained. Examples of the usefulness of rescue-men recovering mines after the completion of rescue-work have already been given. The first of those now to be described was frequently met with; the second was the biggest military mining operation ever attempted by men wearing apparatus; the third was another excellent example of charging and tamping a mine; while the fourth enabled a very important mine to be blown at the Battle of Messines.
(1) Two men were caught in a gallery that had been wrecked by an enemy blow. The work of clearing the gallery was carried out immediately by mine-rescue men wearing Proto apparatus, who worked in pairs in 30-minute shifts. On account of the damage done to the gallery and the small size (2 feet 3 inches wide), work was slow, as only one man could work at a time, the other standing by in case of emergency and acting as relief.
While this work was being carried out, the air was tested with canaries and mice from time to time. About an hour after the blow, it was found that the air had cleared, but the men continued working in apparatus, fortunately, as shortly afterwards there was an inrush of gas, and a canary exposed to this was immediately killed. Air-pumps were rigged up, and air pipes led in to clear the galleries of gas. Work was carried on for six hours.
(2) Mine Charging and Tamping by Rescue-men wearing Proto Apparatus.- Owing to repeated blows, the ground in an important mining sector had become saturated with gas, and in attempting to work in this area a considerable number of men had been gassed. The enemy had approached underground within striking distance of our trenches, and it was absolutely essential for the safety of the line that the enemy should be held. Gas had been entering the galleries continuously from an enemy mine fired two weeks previously, and could not be sufficiently overcome by pumps to render ordinary charging operations practicable. Work being almost at n standstill, it was resolved to charge and tamp a mine with the aid of
men working with Proto apparatus. Seventeen rescue-men of the company were employed under the control of Lieut. R. C. Smart of the First Army Mine-rescue School.
The gallery ran out 100 feet from the bottom of a vertical shaft 80 feet deep, with a 16-foot chamber at the end. While the length of the gallery was very favourable -- few mines being charged so close to a main shaft-the dimensions and conditions were unfavourable, the last 40 feet measuring only 31 feet by 2½ feet, and having shaken sides and a bad floor.
(i) Organisation of Work. Personnel: two officers and seventeen rescue-men. These were distributed as follows: -
(a) At rescue-station: four rescue-men. Two, with the aid of a fatigue man, charged and supervised all apparatus before issue. The other two stood by, in readiness for rescue-work and for treating gas-poisoning cases.
(b) In the mine: one officer and thirteen rescue-men, divided into two shifts: (1) officer and six men; (2) N.C.O. (company instructor) and six men.
(ii) Distribution of Apparatus.- For work in mine: fourteen Proto sets; reserve at rescue-station: four Proto sets.
Novita oxygen reviving apparatus and mine-stretchers were kept at the shaft-bottom, and arrangements were made at the surface and underground for treatment of gas-poisoning cases.
The duty of the first shift was to see that the shaft was cleared of all obstruction liable to foul apparatus, that hose and leads were well tied back, and that miners' electric lamps were fastened in the shaft and gallery, as hood light was essential.
Charging by rescue-men with ammonal in 50-pound tins was impracticable, and double sandbags containing about 20 pounds of explosive were used instead.
During a period of 43 hours the two shifts worked in reliefs of about two hours. It took seven hours (including a break of one hour in order to see the effect of tamping on the gas) to put in 5,000 pounds of ammonal, the last 1,000 pounds being placed in an hour. Altogether 65 feet of solid tamping were put in, the actual time taken to put in the charge and tamping being sixteen hours. Eighty-six twin cylinders and ninety miners' electric lights were used, a liberal reserve of apparatus and spares having been provided by the school. During periods of resting, numerous odd jobs in connexion with ventilation, lighting, etc., were done. Actually each man did about ten hours' work underground. There was no accident from defective apparatus, which speaks volumes for the efficiency of the school junior instructor (Sapper Truman, R.E.) who supervised all apparatus before issuing it to the men.
The charge was laid and the mine sprung in time to save the situation.
Lieut. Smart was responsible for all the arrangements made, and he personally supervised the work in the mine. The men had implicit confidence in him, and his orders were carefully obeyed. For this splendid work, which saved a critical situation, Lieut. Smart was awarded the Military Cross and Sapper Truman the Military Medal.
The successful issue of these operations emphasizes the importance attaching to the following details:
(a) Squads should be organized so that continuous work can be maintained.
(b) Spare rescue-men mist be detailed to stand by for emergencies.
(c) Every effort should be made to ensure that every man is thoroughly conversant with (1) his duties, (2) the nature of the work to be done, (3) the rules to be observed, and (4) the code of signals.
(d) The physical condition of the men must be carefully watched.
(e) Accommodation for re-charging apparatus near the mine must be arranged for.
(f) Hot- coffee must be ready for shifts of men coming off duty. Fluid nourishment is best; full meals must be avoided.
(3) In a certain mining sector, owing to the late number of blows, the ground had become saturated with --as. While driving through this area, considerable trouble was experienced with men being gassed. As it was of vital necessity for the safety of the mine system that work should proceed, the officer in charge resolved to use Proto apparatus to complete the work. The following work was carried out by men wearing rescue apparatus: -
The chamber of the explosive charge which had been started was completed by pick-work. In loading, Proto apparatus was used during the whole of the first day, a considerable part of the second day, and for four hours on the third day while tamping was being put in. After tamping had been completed, no further trouble from gas was experienced.
Two men worked in the morning and in the afternoon shifts, working for 1!, to 2 hours at a time. In a shift of 8 hours, they were able to go down twice for 3 hours. One man after working for 2 hours went down again after an hour's rest. These men made no complaint after completing their -shift, and were not in any way exhausted or affected by the work.
(4) The enemy blew a camouflet which destroyed a considerable part of a gallery, cutting off more than 1,000 feet of gallery leading to -a chamber which had been completed _ and ready for charging, and was to be one of our biggest and most important offensive mines at the Battle of Messines. It was
found necessary to re-drive the gallery. While this was being done, constant trouble from gas was experienced but overcome. Later on, however, there was an inrush of gas, which led to the death of three men. The bodies were brought to the surface in fifty minutes by rescue-men who had to travel 2,500 feet in a very narrow gallery.
In order to recover the rest of the gallery, it was resolved to work round the affected area, which appeared to be saturated with gas. But before work could be recommenced, it was
necessary first of all to build off the affected area and to improve the ventilation. This work was carried out by the company rescue-men wearing Proto apparatus, under the direction of Corporal Parry, the assistant instructor at the mine-rescue school, in place of the company instructor, who had been killed a few days before.
Work was started on April 30th and was completed on May 4th, 1917. The first work consisted chiefly of coupling and uncoupling the air-pipes at various points in the gallery, and testing how far in a fresh-air base for operations could be placed. On the second day the electric pump broke, and two men uncoupled the air-pipe and connected it to a Holman hand-pump. Later on, by hard work, the laying of air-pipes right up to the face was completed. Next day gas was discovered at the face, a canary being affected in five minutes; 15 feet of 'tamping were then put in, but as gas still came through, a large gastight dam was built. This consisted of 20 feet of solid tamping, measuring 4 feet 3 inches by 2 feet 3 inches, - which took 4~ hours to complete, as only one man could work at a time. Just when this had been completed, the enemy blew a mine, which, fortunately did not damage this gallery. • The rescue-men in the mine retained their self-possession and proceeded out calmly. After resting, they went back to investigate the damage. This splendid work allowed 1,200 feet of gallery to be recovered, the mine being charged and tamped the day before it was required. The work of this company in overcoming the gas difficulties, which at one time were so serious as to threaten the abandonment of this mine, was characterised by indomitable pluck and perseverance. This mine was the biggest one blown at the battle of Messines, the charge being considerably over 90,000 pounds.
III.-FLOODING OF THE BETHUNE COALFIELD WITH LACHRYMATORY GAS BY THE ENEMY.
I am sure that the members of the Institution would like to hear about what must be considered one of the, most extraordinary incidents in the war and quite unique in warfare.
Although one of the collieries (Fosse 8) in this very important mine system was in the enemy lines, and all the
shaft-heads and the mining villages of Philosophe, Annequin, Vermelles, etc., were within easy range of the enemy, and had been frequently shelled, the French had been able to continue working, although the output of coal had been considerably reduced.
In September, 1917, at the height of the submarine warfare and when coal was urgently required by the French, the enemy made a determined effort to prevent the French from working
the Bethune Collieries. To prevent the flooding of the whole system, the French had installed pumps near Fosse 8, which, I should add, was the downcast shaft for the whole system. A guard had been placed at this point. As unusual activity had been reported at this shaft-head, one of the Tunnelling Com-
FIG. 13.-DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION ON A LINE BETWEEN FOSSE 9 AND FOSSE 8
panies (170th) was asked to detail a permanent guard for duty in the mine, and the French miners at once commenced building a stopping as the enemy appeared to be preparing to destroy the shaft at Fosse 8 which would flood the whole Bethune area. The stopping was nearing completion when the enemy flooded the mine with chloropicrin, a very powerful lachrymatory gas. A signaller escaped, and gave the alarm. The whole of the Tunnelling Company guard, and all the French miners who were at work on the stopping, were unable to make their escape and perished.
Rescue-parties were quickly organized by the Tunnelling Company and several attempts were made to reach the men,
but these failed, because it was found that the gas was present in such concentration that after 1,600 yards had been traversed, gas came through the face-piece of the box-respirator. Rescue-operations at this stage were rendered more difficult by the enemy shelling the shaft-heads in our lines with gas-shells. One of the rescue-parties on coming to the surface was exposed to this, and all the members were more or less seriously affected, the officer in charge of the party dying next day from the effects.
Special respirators were now improvised, the masks and drums of which could stand prolonged exposure to high concentrations of gas. After several attempts, rescue-parties recovered all the bodies. Strenuous efforts were now directed to clearing the mine of gas, in order to permit the French miners completing their task of sealing off Fosse 8 from the rest of the mine system. Their efforts proved successful.
A short summary of the conditions under which work was carried out by the rescue-parties will give some idea of the terribly trying and arduous character of the work:
(1) The gas was present in great concentration.
(2) The arduous character of the work-climbing many hundred feet of ladder (one shaft was over..1,000 feet deep), traversing long roads, carrying out such work as putting up brattice, making s toppings and effecting changes in the ventilation, carrying bodies on stretchers.
(3) The length of exposure to the gas, owning to the length of the roads to be traversed, which might be 2 or more miles.
(4) The defective light underground, which calls for the best possible type of eye-piece. Any eye-piece which dims readily is a danger in this class of work, more especially as the roads are often bad, and unless clear vision is possible, such accidents as falling down winzes, a clear drop of 80 feet, might occur. The experience gained in these rescue-operations pointed to the necessity of the officer in charge of the party personally supervising the cleaning of the eye-piece of each member of the working party.
Although the gassing of the Bethune Collieries resulted in regrettable loss of life, the enemy failed to achieve his object of flooding the mines by first gassing the guard and preventing the carrying-out of any work in the mine, and breaking the tubbing of the shaft in his line. Owing to the wonderful resource, devotion to duty, untiring efforts, and bravery of the Tunnellers, who all realized what the loss of these collieries would mean to the Allies, a dangerous situation was saved and a most valuable coalfield preserved.
Fig.12 in the text is a sketch plan of the Bethune colliery system and Fig.13 a diagrammatic section on a line between Fosse 9 and Fosse 8